Rationale: Underinflation of the tracheal cuff frequently occurs in critically ill patients and represents a risk factor for microaspiration of contaminated oropharyngeal secretions and gastric contents that plays a major role in the pathogenesis of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP).
Objectives: To determine the impact of continuous control of tracheal cuff pressure (Pcuff) on microaspiration of gastric contents.
Methods: Prospective randomized controlled trial performed in a single medical intensive care unit. A total of 122 patients expected to receive mechanical ventilation for at least 48 hours through a tracheal tube were randomized to receive continuous control of Pcuff using a pneumatic device (intervention group, n = 61) or routine care of Pcuff (control group, n = 61).
Measurements and Main Results: The primary outcome was microaspiration of gastric contents as defined by the presence of pepsin at a significant level in tracheal secretions collected during the 48 hours after randomization. Secondary outcomes included incidence of VAP, tracheobronchial bacterial concentration, and tracheal ischemic lesions. The pneumatic device was efficient in controlling Pcuff. Pepsin was measured in 1,205 tracheal aspirates. Percentage of patients with abundant microaspiration (18 vs. 46%; P = 0.002; OR [95% confidence interval], 0.25 [0.11–0.59]), bacterial concentration in tracheal aspirates (mean ± SD 1.6 ± 2.4 vs. 3.1 ± 3.7 log10 cfu/ml, P = 0.014), and VAP rate (9.8 vs. 26.2%; P = 0.032; 0.30 [0.11–0.84]) were significantly lower in the intervention group compared with the control group. However, no significant difference was found in tracheal ischemia score between the two groups.
Conclusions: Continuous control of Pcuff is associated with significantly decreased microaspiration of gastric contents in critically ill patients.
Microaspiration of gastric contents is a risk factor for ventilator-associated pneumonia. Underinflation of the tracheal cuff is common in intubated patients. The impact of continuous control of tracheal cuff pressure (Pcuff) on microaspiration of gastric contents is unknown
Continuous control of Pcuff is associated with significantly decreased microaspiration of gastric contents.
Microaspiration of contaminated oropharyngeal secretions and gastric contents is common in intubated critically ill patients and represents a key factor in the pathogenesis of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) (1, 2). Risk factors for microaspiration include patient-related factors and invasive procedures, such as enteral nutrition through a nasogastric or an orogastric tube and mechanical ventilation through a tracheal tube (3). Supine position, sedation, coma, tracheal diameter, viscosity of secretions, and atmospheric pressure above the tracheal cuff are patient-related factors (4–8). Impossible closure of vocal cords, longitudinal folds in high-volume low-pressure polyvinyl-chloride (PVC) cuffed tracheal tubes, and underinflation of tracheal cuff are tracheal-tube related factors promoting microaspiration in intubated critically ill patients (9–12).
In spite of manual control of cuff pressure (Pcuff) using a manometer, underinflation (< 20 cm H2O) and overinflation (> 30 cm H2O) of the tracheal cuff frequently occurs in intensive care unit (ICU) patients (13, 14). Underinflation and overinflation of the tracheal cuff are well-known risk factors for VAP and tracheal ischemic lesions (15, 16), which are associated with important morbidity and mortality in ICU patients (17–19).
Recently, devices allowing efficient continuous regulation of Pcuff have been developed (13, 20, 21). In vitro (21), animal (22), and human (13, 20) studies have demonstrated that these devices are more efficient in controlling Pcuff than routine care using a manual manometer. To the best of our knowledge, no study has evaluated the impact of continuous control of Pcuff on microaspiration of gastric contents. In addition, recently published guidelines and recommendations did not discuss this issue (23–26). We hypothesized that continuous control of tracheal Pcuff using a pneumatic device would allow reduction of microaspiration of gastric contents. Therefore, we conducted this prospective randomized controlled study to determine the impact of continuous control of Pcuff on microaspiration of gastric contents. Secondary outcomes of this study included incidence of VAP, tracheobronchial bacterial concentration, and tracheal ischemic lesions.
Some of the results of this study have been reported in the form of abstracts (27, 28).
This prospective randomized controlled study was conducted in a single 10-bed medical ICU during an 11-month period. The study was approved by the institutional review board of the Lille University Hospital. Written consent was obtained from the patients or their proxies.
Patients older than 18 years who were intubated and expected to require mechanical ventilation for at least 48 hours were eligible for the study. Patients were excluded if they (1) were already enrolled in another trial, (2) had a contraindication for semirecumbent position, (3) had a contraindication for enteral nutrition, (4) had already undergone mechanical ventilation for more than 48 hours at the time of screening for eligibility, or (5) were admitted to the ICU with prior tracheostomy.
Patients were randomly assigned to receive continuous control of Pcuff (intervention group) or routine care (control group). In both groups, management of the Pcuff was continued until the end of mechanical ventilation or death; target Pcuff was 25 cm H2O. In the intervention group, continuous control of cuff pressure was performed using a pneumatic device (Nosten; Leved, St-Maur, France). In the control group, routine care of the tracheal cuff was performed using a manual manometer (Ambu Cuff Pressure Gauge; Ambu A/S, Ballerup, Denmark) to check and adjust Pcuff three times a day.
Study patients received enteral nutrition according to a written protocol. Sucralfate was used to prevent stress ulcer. Proton pump inhibitors were used to treat documented esophagitis or gastric ulcer. Patients were kept in semirecumbent position. Tracheal tube size was 7.5 and 8 in women and men, respectively. All tracheal tubes used in this study were high-volume low-pressure PVC cuffed.
Pepsin was quantitatively measured in all tracheal aspirates during the 48 hours after randomization. Quantitative tracheal aspirate was performed after intubation, three times a week thereafter, and whenever VAP was suspected. Bronchoalveolar lavage was performed in immunosuppressed patients with suspected VAP and in patients with nonresolving VAP. Fiberoptic bronchoscopy was performed during the 24 hours after extubation to evaluate ischemic tracheal lesions.
The primary end point was the incidence of abundant microaspiration of gastric contents. Secondary outcomes included suspected and microbiologically confirmed (positive tracheal aspirate culture ≥ 106 cfu/ml or bronchoalveolar lavage culture ≥ 104 cfu/ml) VAP (29), bacterial concentration in tracheal aspirates, and tracheal ischemic lesions.
Patients with greater than 65% of tracheal aspirates pepsin positive (> 200 ng/ml) were considered as having abundant microaspiration. Tracheal ischemic lesions were defined based on the presence of hyperemia, ischemia, ulcer, and tracheal rupture (see Table E1 in the online supplement).
Based on the incidence of microaspiration of gastric contents in our ICU, we estimated an incidence of abundant microaspiration of gastric contents of 70% in the control group and 45% in the intervention group. Randomly assigning 61 patients to each group would allow detection of this difference with 80% power and a two-tailed significance level of 0.05.
All P values were two-tailed. Categorical variables were described as frequencies (%). Normally distributed and skewed continuous variables were described as mean ± SD and median (interquartile range), respectively. χ2 test or Fisher exact test were used to compare qualitative variables, as appropriate. Student t test or Mann-Whitney U test were used to compare normally distributed and skewed continuous variables, as appropriate.
The cumulative rates of remaining free of VAP in the two groups were examined by the Kaplan-Meier method and compared by log-rank test. All analyses were performed on an intention-to-treat basis.
Additional details on the methods are provided in the online supplement.
During the study period, 226 patients were admitted to the ICU. One hundred fifty-five (68%) consecutive patients received invasive mechanical ventilation and were screened for eligibility in the study. Twenty-six patients were not eligible because expected duration of mechanical ventilation was less than 48 hours. Among the 129 remaining patients, 4 patients refused to participate and 3 patients had exclusion criteria. One hundred twenty-two patients were randomized (61 per group), 61 patients underwent continuous control of Pcuff, and 61 patients received routine care for Pcuff. All study patients were analyzed (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Study flow chart. ICU = intensive care unit; MV = mechanical ventilation; NIV = noninvasive ventilation; Pcuff = cuff pressure.
[More] [Minimize]Patient characteristics at ICU admission and at randomization were similar in the two groups (Tables 1 and 2). Percentage of Pcuff determinations between 20 and 30 cm H2O and Pcuff were significantly higher in the intervention compared with the control group. Percentage of patients with Pcuff less than 20 cm H2O, percentage of patients with Pcuff greater than 30 cm H2O, percentage of Pcuff determinations less than 20 cm H2O, and percentage of Pcuff determinations greater than 30 cm H2O were significantly lower in the intervention compared with the control group. No significant difference was found in patient characteristics during the 48 hours after randomization (Table 2). Percentage of days in the ICU with antibiotic treatment was significantly lower in the intervention compared with the control group. No significant difference was found in duration of mechanical ventilation between the two groups. Total mechanical ventilation days were 904 versus 822 in intervention and control groups, respectively. No significant difference was found in other patient characteristics during the ICU stay (Table 3).
Continuous Control of Pcuff | |||
Yes | No | ||
n = 61 | n = 61 | P Value | |
Age, y, mean ± SD | 59 ± 15 | 62 ± 16 | 1.0 |
Male sex | 41 (67) | 42 (68) | 0.586 |
SAPS II, mean ± SD | 41 ± 14 | 45 ± 16 | 0.184 |
LOD score, median (IQR) | 5 (2.5–7) | 5 (3–8) | 0.424 |
Ultimately or rapidly fatal underlying disease* | 26 (42) | 27 (44) | 1.0 |
Comorbidities | |||
Diabetes | 4 (6) | 12 (19) | 0.058 |
COPD | 17 (27) | 17 (27) | 1.0 |
Chronic heart failure | 2 (3) | 4 (6) | 0.680 |
Cirrhosis | 4 (6) | 6 (9) | 0.743 |
Chronic renal failure | 1 (1) | 1 (1) | 1.0 |
Immunosuppression | 10 (16) | 12 (19) | 0.814 |
Gastroesophageal reflux | 3 (4) | 2 (3) | 1.0 |
Transfer from other wards | 31 (50) | 35 (57) | 0.586 |
Infection | 45 (73) | 46 (75) | 1.0 |
Prior antibiotic treatment | 35 (57) | 34 (55) | 1.0 |
Causes for ICU admission† | |||
Shock | 24 (39) | 22 (36) | 0.852 |
ARDS | 9 (14) | 16 (26) | 0.178 |
Community-acquired pneumonia | 15 (24) | 16 (26) | 1.0 |
Hospital-acquired pneumonia | 13 (21) | 9 (14) | 0.481 |
Healthcare-associated pneumonia | 4 (6) | 6 (9) | 0.743 |
Neurologic failure | 10 (16) | 9 (14) | 1.0 |
Acute exacerbation of COPD | 7 (11) | 5 (8) | 0.762 |
Congestive heart failure | 0 (0) | 2 (3) | 0.496 |
Acute poisoning | 3 (4) | 4 (6) | 1.0 |
Cardiac arrest | 6 (9) | 7 (11) | 1.0 |
Continuous Control of Pcuff | |||
Yes | No | ||
n = 61 | n = 61 | P Value | |
At randomization | |||
Duration of prior intubation, d | 1 (0.25–2) | 1 (0.5–2) | 0.962 |
Size of tracheal tube | 8 (7.5–8) | 8 (7.5–8) | 0.852 |
LOD score | 4 (1–7) | 4 (2–4) | 0.538 |
During the 48 h after randomization | |||
Pcuff cm H2O | 26 (25–27) | 22 (20–24) | <0.001 |
Pcuff < 20 cm H2O | 2 (3) | 34 (55) | <0.001* |
Pcuff > 30 cm H2O | 2 (3) | 12 (19) | 0.008* |
Percentage of Pcuff determinations 20–30 cm H2O, mean ± SD | 98 ± 13 | 74 ± 26 | <0.001 |
Percentage of Pcuff determinations < 20 cm H2O, mean ± SD | 0.1 ± 12 | 19 ± 23 | <0.001 |
Percentage of Pcuff determinations > 30 cm H2O, mean ± SD | 0.7 ± 5 | 5 ± 18 | 0.003 |
Head of bed elevation, angle achieved, degrees | 40 (36–45) | 40 (37–45) | 0.637 |
Quantity of enteral nutrition, ml/d | 750 (750–1,000) | 750 (750–1,000) | 0.784 |
Vomiting | 10 (16) | 5 (8) | 0.270 |
Prokinetic drugs | 15 (24) | 10 (16) | 0.370 |
Proton pump inhibitor use | 21 (34) | 15 (24) | 0.160 |
Residual gastric volume, ml/d | 80 (30–120) | 70 (25–110) | 0.546 |
Sedation | 39 (63) | 37 (60) | 0.853 |
Ramsay score | 4 (2–4) | 4 (2–4) | 0.537 |
Paralytic agent use | 3 (4) | 8 (13) | 0.205 |
Ventilatory mode | 0.395 | ||
ACV | 44 (72) | 49 (80) | |
PSV | 17 (27) | 12 (19) | |
Positive end-expiratory pressure | 5 (5–7.5) | 6 (5–8) | 0.257 |
Number of tracheal suctioning/24 h, mean ± SD | 8 ± 1 | 8 ± 1 | 0.892 |
Death | 2 (3) | 1 (1) | >0.999 |
Unplanned extubation | 5 (8) | 2 (3) | 0.439 |
Continuous Control of Pcuff | |||
Yes | No | ||
n = 61 | n = 61 | P Value | |
Sedation | 52 (85) | 52 (85) | >0.999 |
Red blood cell transfusion | 23 (37) | 21 (34) | 0.851 |
Tracheostomy | 3 (4) | 5 (8) | 0.717 |
Reintubation | 17 (27) | 9 (14) | 0.121 |
Unplanned extubation | 7 (11) | 3 (4) | |
Extubation failure | 10 (16) | 6 (9) | |
Shock | 29 (47) | 28 (45) | >0.999 |
Transport outside the ICU | 23 (37) | 19 (31) | 0.341 |
Head-of-bed elevation, angle achieved, degrees | 40 (36–45) | 41 (38–45) | 0.526 |
Use of proton pump inhibitors | 20 (32) | 16 (26) | 0.552 |
ICU-acquired infection other than VAP | 6 (9) | 6 (9) | >0.999 |
Ventilator-associated tracheobronchitis | 2 (3) | 5 (8) | 0.436 |
Duration of antimicrobial treatment, d | 9 (6–15) | 10 (6–15) | 0.778 |
% of Days in the ICU with antimicrobials | 83 (56–100) | 100 (75–100) | 0.049 |
Duration of mechanical ventilation, d | 8 (5–16) | 8 (5–15) | 0.867 |
Mechanical ventilation–free days | 3 (1–4) | 2 (1–3.5) | 0.335 |
Length of ICU stay, d | 12 (7–24) | 10 (7–18) | 0.476 |
ICU mortality | 16 (26) | 20 (32) | 0.552 |
Pepsin was measured in 1,205 tracheal aspirates (median [interquartile range], 11 [6–14] vs. 9 [6–13] per patient, P = 0.131, in intervention and control groups, respectively). Percentage of patients with abundant microaspiration was significantly lower in the intervention compared with the control group. In addition, pepsin level, rate of patients with suspected VAP, rate of patients with microbiologically confirmed VAP, and incidence rate of microbiologically confirmed VAP were significantly lower in the intervention compared with the control group. The probability of remaining free of VAP over the duration of mechanical ventilation was significantly higher in the intervention group compared with the control group (log-rank test, P = 0.016) (Figure 2). Bacterial concentration in tracheal aspirates was significantly lower in the intervention compared with the control group (mean ± SD, 1.6 ± 2.4 vs. 3.1 ± 3.7 log10 cfu/ml; P = 0.014) (Figure 3). At least one fiberoptic bronchoscopy was performed in 78% (96 of 122) of study patients during the 24 hours after extubation to determine tracheal ischemic lesions. No significant difference was found in tracheal ischemia score between the two groups (Table 4). Fiberoptic bronchoscopy was well tolerated in all patients, and no bronchoscopy-related complication occurred in study patients.

Figure 2. Cumulative rates of remaining free of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) in the two groups examined by the Kaplan-Meier method; P = 0.016 by log-rank test. Black line and gray line indicate intervention and control groups, respectively. + indicates censored patients.
[More] [Minimize]
Figure 3. Tracheobronchial bacterial concentrations in intervention and control groups.
[More] [Minimize]Continuous Control of Pcuff | ||||
Yes | No | |||
n = 61 | n = 61 | P Value | OR (95% CI) | |
Abundant microaspiration | 11 (18) | 28 (45) | 0.002 | 0.25 (0.11–0.59) |
Pepsin level in tracheal aspirates, ng/ml | 195 (95–250) | 251 (130–390) | 0.043 | — |
VAP | ||||
Suspected | 10 (16) | 24 (39) | 0.008 | 0.3 (0.12–0.7) |
Microbiologically confirmed | 6 (9.8) | 16 (26) | 0.032 | 0.3 (0.11–0.84) |
Incidence rate of microbiologically confirmed VAP | 9.7 (7–14) | 22 (17–26) | 0.005 | — |
Bacterial concentration in tracheal aspirates, Log10 cfu/mL, mean ± SD | 1.6 ± 2.4 | 3.1 ± 3.7 | 0.014 | — |
Tracheal ischemia score | 4.5 (1–6) | 4.5 (1–7) | 0.924 | — |
Gram-negative bacilli were the most frequently isolated microorganisms in patients with VAP and in those with tracheobronchial colonization. No significant difference was found between the intervention and control groups regarding percentage of patients with multidrug-resistant bacteria or percentage of patients with different microorganisms (Table E2). Time from starting mechanical ventilation to VAP occurrence (median [IQR], 7 [5–13] vs. 7 [4–9] d; P = 0.4) and time from starting mechanical ventilation to tracheobronchial colonization occurrence (5 [3–11] vs. 5 [3–8] d, P = 0.5) were similar in intervention and control groups, respectively. Most episodes of VAP were late onset (77% [17 of 22]); no significant difference was found in rate of patients with late-onset VAP between intervention and control group (83 vs. 75%, P = 0.115). Percentage of patient with VAP in whom the diagnosis was made using bronchoalveolar lavage was similar in the two groups (2 of 6 [33%] patients vs. 5 of 16 [31%], P = 1, in intervention and control groups, respectively).
The results of our study suggest that continuous control of Pcuff is associated with reduced microaspiration of gastric contents, reduced tracheobronchial bacterial concentration, and reduced incidence of VAP. However, continuous control of Pcuff had no significant effect on the incidence of tracheal ischemic lesions.
To the best of our knowledge, our study is the first to evaluate the impact of continuous control of Pcuff on microaspiration of gastric contents. This result is plausible given that underinflation of the tracheal cuff is a recognized risk factor for microaspiration and that continuous control of Pcuff allowed significant reduction of underinflation of the tracheal cuff in the intervention group compared with the control group. The relatively small difference in pepsin level between the two groups could be explained by the fact that underinflation of the tracheal cuff is not the only risk factor for microaspiration. In addition, total suppression of microaspiration is probably impossible, especially during tracheal secretion suctioning and tracheal tube movements. Another explanation is the optimal tracheal cuff management in the control group as suggested by the relatively high percentage of Pcuff determinations between 20 and 30 cm H2O (74%) compared with the results of a recent study (48.3%) (30).
An observational cohort study performed in 81 critically ill patients identified underinflation of the tracheal cuff as an independent risk factor for VAP in the subgroup of patients who did not receive antimicrobials (15). However, a recent randomized controlled study examined the effects of automatic control of Pcuff on the incidence of VAP (30). Patients were randomized to receive continuous regulation of Pcuff with an automatic device (n = 73) or routine care of Pcuff (control group, n = 69). No significant difference was found in VAP rate between the two groups. Although VAP was the primary outcome in the study by Valencia and colleagues (30), it was a secondary outcome in ours. In addition, the use of different devices to control Pcuff and the different incidence of VAP might explain the different results obtained in our study. A recent study demonstrated that automated Pcuff controllers with rapid pressure correction interfere with the self-sealing mechanism of high-volume low-pressure PVC-cuffed tracheal tubes and reduce their sealing characteristics (21). This interference is unlikely to be observed using a pneumatic device like the one used in our study.
Our primary outcome was microaspiration of gastric contents and not VAP. Microaspiration is the first step in pathophysiology of VAP. Therefore, the aim of our study was to determine whether continuous control of Pcuff using a pneumatic device would be efficient in reducing microaspiration of gastric contents before conducting a large multicenter study to evaluate the impact of such a device on VAP prevention. Although our results suggest an important role of microaspiration of gastric contents, previous studies suggested a minor role for this mechanism in the pathogenesis of VAP (31, 32).
Incidence of VAP was high in the control group (26%). However, incidence rate of VAP (22 per 1,000 ventilator days) was in line with previous studies performed in French ICUs with similar severity scores (33, 34). This high rate of patients with VAP could be explained by the high Simplified Acute Physiology Score II at admission, the long duration of mechanical ventilation, and the high rate of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. These are well-known risk factors for VAP (35). The systematic use of sucralfate could have increased the rate of VAP in study patients (36). In addition, a recent observational study reported low incidence of bleeding from stress ulceration and raised concern about the benefit of stress ulcer prophylaxis (37). However, two metaanalyses of randomized controlled trials found stress ulcer prophylaxis to significantly reduce the incidence of bleeding (38, 39). In addition, a recent metaanalysis of randomized controlled trials reported significantly lower incidence of VAP in patients who received sucralfate compared with those who received histamine-2-receptor antagonists (40). Although VAP impact on ICU mortality is still a matter for debate, VAP is associated with significantly longer duration of mechanical ventilation (41). In spite of significant reduction in VAP rate, no significant impact of continuous control of Pcuff was found on duration of mechanical ventilation or ICU stay. Our study was probably underpowered to detect such an effect. Other recent randomized controlled trials on VAP prevention found similar results (42, 43).
No significant effect of continuous control of Pcuff was found on tracheal ischemic lesions. To our knowledge, our study is the first human study to report data on tracheal ischemic lesions using fiberoptic bronchoscopy with a predefined score in a large number of patients (n = 96). Several potential explanations could be provided for this negative result. First, the impact of continuous control of Pcuff on tracheal ischemic lesions was a secondary outcome, and the study may have been underpowered to detect a beneficial effect. Second, the number of patients with prolonged mechanical ventilation (> 15 d) was small (n = 31). Prolonged mechanical ventilation through a tracheal tube is a major risk factor for tracheal ischemic lesions in critically ill patients (44). Third, routine care for Pcuff was probably optimal in the control group as suggested by the low percentage (5%) of Pcuff determinations greater than 30 cm H2O compared with the rate reported by a recent study (20%) (30). Previous animal studies reported conflicting results on the impact of continuous control of ischemic tracheal lesions (22, 45). Our group performed a randomized unblinded animal study to determine the impact of continuous regulation of Pcuff on ischemic tracheal lesions (22). Twelve piglets were intubated and mechanically ventilated for 48 hours. Animals were randomized to manual control of Pcuff (n = 6) or to continuous control of Pcuff using a pneumatic device (n = 6). Hyperinflation of the tracheal cuff was performed to mimic high-pressure periods observed in intubated critically ill patients. Although the pneumatic device provided effective continuous control of Pcuff, no significant difference was found in tracheal mucosal lesions between the two groups. Another recent animal study examined the effects of dynamically modulating Pcuff by decreasing it during each ventilatory cycle instead of maintaining a constant level (45). The piglets were randomized to receive a novel device to modulate their Pcuff from 25 cm H2O during inspiration to 7 cm H2O during expiration (n = 5), or a constant Pcuff of 25 cm H2O (n = 5). Both groups underwent ventilation under hypoxic conditions for 4 hours. Subglottic damage and tracheal damage were significantly less severe in the modulated-pressure group. However, the effect of a Pcuff at 7 cm H2O during expiration on microaspiration of contaminated secretions was not evaluated in that study.
Our study has some limitations. First, we performed this study in a single center. Therefore, our results may not be extrapolated to all ICU patients, especially in ICUs with lower incidence of VAP or with surgical patients. Second, because of the nature of the intervention, physicians and nurses could not be blinded to the randomization arm. However, physicians who performed pepsin measurement and those who performed fiberoptic bronchoscopy were blinded to study group assignment. In addition, two investigators reviewed all chest X-rays and independently confirmed the presence of new pulmonary infiltrate. Third, an important proportion of patients had pneumonia at ICU admission. The diagnosis of VAP could be difficult in patients with abnormalities on chest X-ray before VAP. However, in all patients with VAP the initial episode of pneumonia was resolved, and antibiotic treatment was stopped before VAP diagnosis. Forth, pepsin was not measured during all mechanical ventilation periods. However, pepsin was measured during 48 hours of mechanical ventilation, representing 25% of median duration of mechanical ventilation in study patients. Risk factors for microaspiration of gastric contents have probably occurred in study patients during the 48-hour period of pepsin measurement, and thus such a period might reflect the routine care provided during the entire mechanical ventilation period. Fifth, the size of tracheal tubes used in our study (7.5–8) might have been smaller than tracheal tubes used in other ICUs (8–8.5 mm), which might have influenced our results on microaspiration. Furthermore, the proportion of reintubation was high in study patients (21%), especially in intervention group (27%). However, the difference between the two groups was not significant. In addition, other recent studies reported similar rates of reintubation related to self-extubation or respiratory failure (46, 47). Finally, we did not evaluate the effects of continuous control of Pcuff on microaspiration of oropharyngeal secretions or on the microbiology of these secretions. However, to our knowledge, there is no reason that continuous control of Pcuff could be efficient in reducing microaspiration of gastric contents without reducing microaspiration of oropharyngeal secretions. Furthermore, the microbiological assessment of oropharyngeal secretions was beyond the objectives of this study.
Continuous control of Pcuff is associated with reduced microaspiration of gastric contents, reduced tracheobronchial bacterial concentration, and reduced incidence of VAP. Implementation of this measure should now be considered in ICUs with high VAP rates even if randomized controlled multicenter studies are needed to confirm our results and to evaluate cost-effectiveness and long-term effect of continuous control of Pcuff on tracheal ischemic lesions before generalizing the use of this technique in every intubated patient requiring mechanical ventilation.
1. | Metheny NA, Clouse RE, Chang YH, Stewart BJ, Oliver DA, Kollef MH. Tracheobronchial aspiration of gastric contents in critically ill tube-fed patients: frequency, outcomes, and risk factors. Crit Care Med 2006;34:1007–1015. |
2. | Palmer LB. Ventilator-associated tracheobronchitis. Curr Respir Med Rev 2010;6:58–64. |
3. | Craven DE, Chroneou A, Zias N, Hjalmarson KI. Ventilator-associated tracheobronchitis: the impact of targeted antibiotic therapy on patient outcomes. Chest 2009;135:521–528. |
4. | Nseir S, Makris D, Mathieu D, Durocher A, Marquette CH. Intensive care unit-acquired infection as a side effect of sedation. Crit Care 2010;14:R30. |
5. | Nseir S, Zerimech F, De Jonckheere J, Alves I, Balduyck M, Durocher A. Impact of polyurethane on variations in tracheal cuff pressure in critically ill patients: a prospective observational study. Intensive Care Med 2010;36:1156–1163. |
6. | Torres A, Serra-Batlles J, Ros E, Piera C, Puig de la Bellacasa J, Cobos A, Lomeña F, Rodríguez-Roisin R. Pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents in patients receiving mechanical ventilation: the effect of body position. Ann Intern Med 1992;116:540–543. |
7. | Winklmaier U, Wust K, Schiller S, Wallner F. Leakage of fluid in different types of tracheal tubes. Dysphagia 2006;21:237–242. |
8. | Myers A, Morgan P, Toner A, Scot M. In vitro evaluation of the Mallinckrodt SealGuard endotracheal tube [abstract]. Intensive Care Med 2009;35:S8-Abstract 15. |
9. | Safdar N, Crnich CJ, Maki DG. The pathogenesis of ventilator-associated pneumonia: its relevance to developing effective strategies for prevention. Respir Care 2005;50:725–739. |
10. | Young PJ, Pakeerathan S, Blunt MC, Subramanya S. A low-volume, low-pressure tracheal tube cuff reduces pulmonary aspiration. Crit Care Med 2006;34:632–639. |
11. | Dullenkopf A, Gerber A, Weiss M. Fluid leakage past tracheal tube cuffs: evaluation of the new Microcuff endotracheal tube. Intensive Care Med 2003;29:1849–1853. |
12. | Nseir S, Zerimech F, Jaillette E, Balduyck M. Microaspiration in intubated critically ill patients: diagnosis and prevention. Infect Disord Drug Targets 2011;11:413–423. |
13. | Duguet A, D'Amico L, Biondi G, Prodanovic H, Gonzalez-Bermejo J, Similowski T. Control of tracheal cuff pressure: a pilot study using a pneumatic device. Intensive Care Med 2007;33:128–132. |
14. | Nseir S, Brisson H, Marquette CH, Chaud P, Di Pompeo C, Diarra M, Durocher A. Variations in endotracheal cuff pressure in intubated critically ill patients: prevalence and risk factors. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2009;26:229–234. |
15. | Rello J, Sonora R, Jubert P, Artigas A, Rue M, Valles J. Pneumonia in intubated patients: role of respiratory airway care. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996;154:111–115. |
16. | Seegobin RD, van Hasselt GL. Endotracheal cuff pressure and tracheal mucosal blood flow: endoscopic study of effects of four large volume cuffs. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1984;288:965–968. |
17. | Muscedere JG, Day A, Heyland DK. Mortality, attributable mortality, and clinical events as end points for clinical trials of ventilator-associated pneumonia and hospital-acquired pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis 2010;51:S120–S125. |
18. | Niederman MS. Hospital-acquired pneumonia, health care-associated pneumonia, ventilator-associated pneumonia, and ventilator-associated tracheobronchitis: definitions and challenges in trial design. Clin Infect Dis 2010;51:S12–S17. |
19. | Deslee G, Brichet A, Lebuffe G, Copin MC, Ramon P, Marquette CH. Obstructive fibrinous tracheal pseudomembrane. A potentially fatal complication of tracheal intubation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000;162:1169–1171. |
20. | Farre R, Rotger M, Ferre M, Torres A, Navajas D. Automatic regulation of the cuff pressure in endotracheally-intubated patients. Eur Respir J 2002;20:1010–1013. |
21. | Weiss M, Doell C, Koepfer N, Madjdpour C, Woitzek K, Bernet V. Rapid pressure compensation by automated cuff pressure controllers worsens sealing in tracheal tubes. Br J Anaesth 2009;102:273–278. |
22. | Nseir S, Duguet A, Copin MC, De Jonckheere J, Zhang M, Similowski T, Marquette CH. Continuous control of endotracheal cuff pressure and tracheal wall damage: a randomized controlled animal study. Crit Care 2007;11:R109. |
23. | Muscedere J, Dodek P, Keenan S, Fowler R, Cook D, Heyland D. Comprehensive evidence-based clinical practice guidelines for ventilator-associated pneumonia: prevention. J Crit Care 2008;23:126–137. |
24. | Masterton RG, Galloway A, French G, Street M, Armstrong J, Brown E, Cleverley J, Dilworth P, Fry C, Gascoigne AD, et al.. Guidelines for the management of hospital-acquired pneumonia in the UK: report of the working party on hospital-acquired pneumonia of the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. J Antimicrob Chemother 2008;62:5–34. |
25. | Coffin SE, Klompas M, Classen D, Arias KM, Podgorny K, Anderson DJ, Burstin H, Calfee DP, Dubberke ER, Fraser V, et al.. Strategies to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia in acute care hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2008;29:S31–S40. |
26. | Torres A, Ewig S, Lode H, Carlet J. Defining, treating and preventing hospital acquired pneumonia: European perspective. Intensive Care Med 2009;35:9–29. |
27. | Nseir S, Zerimech F, Fournier C, Lubret R, Ramon P, Durocher A, Balduyck M. Continuous control of tracheal cuff pressure and microaspiration of gastric contents: a randomized controlled study [abstract]. Crit Care 2011;:P158. |
28. | Nseir S, Zerimech F, Fournier C, Lubret R, Ramon P, Durocher A, Balduyck M. Continuous control of tracheal cuff pressure and microaspiration of gastric contents: a randomized controlled study [abstract]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011;183:A6434. |
29. | Niederman MS, Craven DE. Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005;171:388–416. |
30. | Valencia M, Ferrer M, Farre R, Navajas D, Badia JR, Nicolas JM, Torres A. Automatic control of tracheal tube cuff pressure in ventilated patients in semirecumbent position: a randomized trial. Crit Care Med 2007;35:1543–1549. |
31. | Bonten MJ, Gaillard CA, de Leeuw PW, Stobberingh EE. Role of colonization of the upper intestinal tract in the pathogenesis of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis 1997;24:309–319. |
32. | Garrouste-Orgeas M, Chevret S, Arlet G, Marie O, Rouveau M, Popoff N, Schlemmer B. Oropharyngeal or gastric colonization and nosocomial pneumonia in adult intensive care unit patients. A prospective study based on genomic DNA analysis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;156:1647–1655. |
33. | REA-RAISIN 2005: Surveillance of ICU-acquired infections in adult critically ill patients in France [accessed on April 5, 2011]. Available from: http://www.invs sante fr/publications/2006/rea_raisin_2005/index html |
34. | Bouadma L, Mourvillier B, Deiler V, Le Corre B, Lolom I, Regnier B, Wolff M, Lucet JC. A multifaceted program to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia: impact on compliance with preventive measures. Crit Care Med 2010;38:789–796. |
35. | Chastre J, Fagon JY. Ventilator-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;165:867–903. |
36. | Bornstain C, Azoulay E, De Lassence A, Cohen Y, Costa MA, Mourvillier B, Descorps-Declere A, Garrouste-Orgeas M, Thuong M, Schlemmer B, et al.. Sedation, sucralfate, and antibiotic use are potential means for protection against early-onset ventilator-associated pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis 2004;38:1401–1408. |
37. | Faisy C, Guerot E, Diehl JL, Iftimovici E, Fagon JY. Clinically significant gastrointestinal bleeding in critically ill patients with and without stress-ulcer prophylaxis. Intensive Care Med 2003;29:1306–1313. |
38. | Cook DJ, Witt LG, Cook RJ, Guyatt GH. Stress ulcer prophylaxis in the critically ill: a meta-analysis. Am J Med 1991;91:519–527. |
39. | Cook DJ, Reeve BK, Guyatt GH, Heyland DK, Griffith LE, Buckingham L, Tryba M. Stress ulcer prophylaxis in critically ill patients. Resolving discordant meta-analyses. JAMA 1996;275:308–314. |
40. | Huang J, Cao Y, Liao C, Wu L, Gao F. Effect of histamine-2-receptor antagonists versus sucralfate on stress ulcer prophylaxis in mechanically ventilated patients: a meta-analysis of 10 randomized controlled trials. Crit Care 2010;14:R194. |
41. | Melsen WG, Rovers MM, Bonten MJ. Ventilator-associated pneumonia and mortality: a systematic review of observational studies. Crit Care Med 2009;37:2709–2718. |
42. | Lacherade JC, De Jonghe B, Guezennec P, Debbat K, Hayon J, Monsel A, Fangio P, Appere de Vecchi C, Ramaut C, Outin H, et al.. Intermittent subglottic secretion drainage and ventilator-associated pneumonia: a multicenter trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2010;182:910–917. |
43. | Morrow LE, Kollef MH, Casale TB. Probiotic prophylaxis of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a blinded, randomized, controlled trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2010;182:1058–1064. |
44. | Kastanos N, Estopa MR, Marin PA, Xaubet MA, Agusti-Vidal A. Laryngotracheal injury due to endotracheal intubation: incidence, evolution, and predisposing factors. A prospective long-term study. Crit Care Med 1983;11:362–367. |
45. | Chadha NK, Gordin A, Luginbuehl I, Patterson G, Campisi P, Taylor G, Forte V. Automated cuff pressure modulation: a novel device to reduce endotracheal tube injury. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2011;137:30–34. |
46. | Krinsley JS, Barone JE. The drive to survive: unplanned extubation in the ICU. Chest 2005;128:560–566. |
47. | Perren A, Previsdomini M, Llamas M, Cerutti B, Gyorik S, Merlani G, Jolliet P. Patients’ prediction of extubation success. Intensive Care Med 2010;36:2045–2052. |
Author contributions: All authors contributed to study design. S.N., F.Z., C.F., R.L., P.R., and M.B. collected data. S.N. drafted the manuscript. All authors critically revised the manuscript and agreed on the submitted version.
This article has an online supplement, which is accessible from this issue's table of contents at www.atsjournals.org
Originally Published in Press as DOI: 10.1164/rccm.201104-0630OC on August 12, 2011
Author disclosures